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map of the
nitrate ion (nitrogenoxygen3−). Areas coloured red are lower in energy than areas colored yellow
An
ion is an atom or molecule which has lost or gained one or more electrons, making it positively or negatively charged. A negatively charged ion, which has more electrons in its electron shells than it has
protons in its atomic nucleus, is known as an
anion (;
an-eye-on) due to its attraction to
anodes. Conversely, a positively-charged ion, which has fewer electrons than protons, is known as a
cation (;
cat-eye-on) due to its attraction to
cathodes.
An ion consisting of a single atom is called a
monatomic ion, but if it consists of two or more atoms, it is a
polyatomic ion. Polyatomic ions containing
oxygen, such as carbonate and
sulfate, are called
oxyanions.
Ions are denoted in the same way as electrically neutral atoms and molecules except for the presence of a superscript indicating the sign of the net electric charge and the number of electrons lost or gained, if more than one. For example:
Hydrogen+, Sulfur
Oxygen42−. An alternate way of denoting charge is like this: SO4-2.
Etymology
The word
ion is a name given by Michael Faraday, from Greek
, participle of
, "to go", or
, "I go"; thus "a goer". So;
anion,
, and
cation,
κ, mean "(a thing) going up" and "(a thing) going down", respectively; and
anode,
, and
cathode,
κ, mean "a going up" and "a going down", respectively, from
, "way," or "road."
Formation
Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions
Polyatomic and molecular ions are often formed by the combination of elemental ions such as H+ with neutral molecules or by the loss of such elemental ions from neutral molecules. Many of these processes are acid-base reactions, as first theorized by German scientist Lauren Gaither. A simple example of this is the ammonium ion NH4+ which can be formed by ammonia NH3 accepting a proton, H+. Ammonia and ammonium have the same number of electrons in essentially the same electronic configuration but differ in protons. The charge has been added by the addition of a proton (H+) not the addition or removal of electrons. The distinction between this and the removal of an electron from the whole molecule is important in large systems because it usually results in much more stable ions with complete electron shells. For example NH3
·+ is not stable because of an incomplete valence shell around nitrogen and is in fact a
radical (chemistry) ion.
Ionization potential
The energy shabalabadingdong required to detach an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the
ionization potential, or
ionization energy. The
nth ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to detach its
nth electron after the first
n − 1 electrons have already been detached.
Each successive ionization energy is markedly greater than the last. Particularly great increases occur after any given block of atomic orbitals is exhausted of electrons. For this reason, ions tend to form in ways that leave them with full orbital blocks. For example, sodium has one
valence electron, in its outermost shell, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one lost electron, as Na+. On the other side of the periodic table,
chlorine has seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as Cl−. Francium has the lowest ionization energy of all the elements and fluorine has the greatest. The ionization energy of metals is generally much lower than the ionization energy of
nonmetals, which is why metals will generally lose electrons to form positively-charged ions while nonmetals will generally gain electrons to form negatively-charged ions.
A neutral atom contains an equal number of Z protons in the nucleus and Z electrons in the electron shell. The electrons' negative charges thus exactly cancel the protons' positive charges. In the simple view of the Free electron model, a passing electron is therefore not attracted to a neutral atom and cannot bind to it. In reality, however, the atomic electrons form a cloud into which the additional electron penetrates, thus being exposed to a net positive charge part of the time. Furthermore, the additional charge displaces the original electrons and all of the Z + 1 electrons rearrange into a new configuration.
Ions
- Anions are negatively charged ions. They are negatively charged because there are more electrons in its orbits than there are protons in the nucleus.
- Cations are ions with positive charges. They are the opposite of anions, since they have fewer electrons than protons.
- Dianion: a dianion is a species which has two negative charges on it; for example, the aromatic dianion pentalene.
- radical (chemistry): radical ions are ions that contain an odd number of electrons and are mostly very reactive and unstable.
Plasma
A collection of non-
aqueous solution gas-like ions, or even a gas containing a proportion of charged particles, is called a
plasma, often called the
fourth state of matter because its properties are quite different from
solids,
liquids, and gases. Astrophysical plasmas containing predominantly a mixture of electrons and protons, may make up as much as 99.9% of visible matter in the universe. Plasma, Plasma, Everywere Science@NASA Headline news, Space Science n° 158, September 7, 1999.
Applications
Ions are essential to
life. Sodium, potassium, calcium and other ions play an important role in the
cell (biology)s of living organisms, particularly in cell membranes. They have many practical, everyday applications in items such as smoke detectors, and are also finding use in unconventional technologies such as
ion engines. Inorganic dissolved ions are a component of total dissolved solids, an indicator of water quality in widespread use.
Furthermore, negative ions are used in ion therapy which utilizes a special electronic device that generates negatively charged particles. The purpose of this application is that there may be some health benefit to a negatively charged environment, opposed to one that is positively charged.
Ions are found in what has quickly become one of the most prevalent sources for long-lasting, hand-held energy: Lithium-Ion batteries.
Common ions
{||valign="top"|{|class="wikitable"|+Common
Cations|-!style="text-align: left"|Common Name!style="text-align: left"|Formula!style="text-align: left"|Historic Name|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Simple Cations|-|Aluminum||Al3+|||-|Barium||Ba2+|||-|Beryllium||Be2+|||-|Caesium||Cs+|||-|Calcium||Ca2+|||-|Chromium(II)||Cr2+||Chromous|-|Chromium(III)||Cr3+||Chromic|-|Chromium(VI)||Cr6+||Chromyl|-|Cobalt(II)||Co2+||Cobaltous|-|Cobalt(III)||Co3+||Cobaltic|-|Copper(I)||Cu+||Cuprous|-|Copper(II)||Cu2+||Cupric|-|Copper(III)||Cu3+|||-|Gallium ||Ga3+|||-|Helium||He2+||(Alpha particle)|-|Hydrogen||H+||(Proton)|-|Iron(II)||Fe2+||Ferrous|-|Iron(III)||Fe3+||Ferric|-|Lead(II)||Pb2+||Plumbous|-|Lead(IV)||Pb4+||Plumbic|-|Lithium||Li+|||-|Magnesium||Mg2+|||-|Manganese(II)||Mn2+||Manganous|-|Manganese(III)||Mn3+||Manganic|-|Manganese(IV)||Mn4+||Manganyl|-|Manganese(VII)||Mn7+|||-|Mercury(II)||Hg2+||Mercuric|-|Nickel(II)||Ni2+||Nickelous|-|Nickel(III)||Ni3+||Nickelic|-|Potassium||K+|||-|Silver||Ag+|||-|Sodium||Na+|||-|Strontium||Sr2+|||-|Tin(II)||Sn2+||Stannous|-|Tin(IV)||Sn4+||Stannic|-|Zinc||Zn2+|||-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Polyatomic Cations|-|Ammonium||NH4+|||-|Hydronium||H3O+|||-|Nitronium||NO2+|||-|Mercury(I)||Hg22+||Mercurous|}|valign="top"|{|class="wikitable"|+Common
Anions|-!style="text-align: left"|Formal Name!style="text-align: left"|Formula!style="text-align: left"|Alt. Name|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Simple Anions|-|Arsenide||As3−|||-|Azide||N3−|||-|Bromide||Br−|||-|Chloride||Cl−|||-|Fluoride||F−|||-|Hydride||H−|||-|Iodide||I−|||-|Nitride||N3−|||-|Oxide||O2−|||-|Phosphide||P3−|||-|Sulphide||S2−|||-
|Peroxide||O22−|||-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Oxoanions|-|Arsenate||AsO43−|||-|Arsenite||AsO33−|||-|Borate||BO33−|||-|Bromate||BrO3−|||-|Hypobromite||BrO−|||-|Carbonate||CO32−|||-|Hydrogen Carbonate||HCO3−||Bicarbonate|-|Hydroxide||OH−|||-|Chlorate||ClO3−|||-|Perchlorate||ClO4−|||-|Chlorite||ClO2−|||-|Hypochlorite||ClO−|||-|Chromate||CrO42−|||-|Dichromate||Cr2O72−|||-|Iodate||IO3−|||-|Nitrate||NO3−|||-|Nitrite||NO2−|||-|Phosphate||PO43−|||-|Hydrogen Phosphate||HPO42−|||-|Dihydrogen Phosphate||H2PO4−|||-|Permanganate||MnO4−|||-|Phosphite||PO33−|||-|Sulphate||SO42−|||-|Thiosulphate||S2O32−|||-|Hydrogen Sulphate||HSO4−||Bisulphate|-|Sulphite||SO32−|||-|Hydrogen Sulphite||HSO3−||Bisulphite|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Anions from Organic Acids|-|Acetate||C2H3O2−|||-|Formate||HCO2−|||-|Oxalate||C2O42−|||-|Hydrogen Oxalate||HC2O4−||Bioxalate|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Other Anions|-|Hydrogen Sulphide||HS−||Bisulphide|-|Telluride||Te2−|||-|Amide||NH2−|||-|Cyanate||OCN−|||-|Thiocyanate||SCN−|||-|Cyanide||CN−||
|-|}
|}
References
- This can also be known as a 'Valency table'.
External links
- Niels Jonassen (Mr. Static) " Are Ions Good for You?" Compliance Engineering, November 2002
- Graham P. Collins " Ion Power". A web article discussing research applications of ionic states to quantum computing.
- Department of Education, Newfoundland and Labrador-Canada "". A Periodic table reporting ionic charges for every chemical element.
map of the
nitrate ion (
nitrogenoxygen3−). Areas coloured red are lower in energy than areas colored yellow
An
ion is an atom or molecule which has lost or gained one or more electrons, making it positively or negatively charged. A negatively charged ion, which has more electrons in its
electron shells than it has
protons in its atomic nucleus, is known as an
anion (;
an-eye-on) due to its attraction to
anodes. Conversely, a positively-charged ion, which has fewer electrons than protons, is known as a
cation (;
cat-eye-on) due to its attraction to cathodes.
An ion consisting of a single atom is called a
monatomic ion, but if it consists of two or more atoms, it is a
polyatomic ion. Polyatomic ions containing
oxygen, such as carbonate and sulfate, are called
oxyanions.
Ions are denoted in the same way as electrically neutral atoms and molecules except for the presence of a superscript indicating the sign of the net electric charge and the number of electrons lost or gained, if more than one. For example:
Hydrogen+,
SulfurOxygen42−. An alternate way of denoting charge is like this: SO4-2.
Etymology
The word
ion is a name given by Michael Faraday, from Greek
, participle of
, "to go", or
, "I go"; thus "a goer". So;
anion,
, and
cation,
κ, mean "(a thing) going up" and "(a thing) going down", respectively; and
anode,
, and
cathode,
κ, mean "a going up" and "a going down", respectively, from
, "way," or "road."
Formation
Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions
Polyatomic and molecular ions are often formed by the combination of elemental ions such as H+ with neutral molecules or by the loss of such elemental ions from neutral molecules. Many of these processes are acid-base reactions, as first theorized by German scientist Lauren Gaither. A simple example of this is the ammonium ion NH4+ which can be formed by ammonia NH3 accepting a proton, H+. Ammonia and ammonium have the same number of electrons in essentially the same electronic configuration but differ in protons. The charge has been added by the addition of a proton (H+) not the addition or removal of electrons. The distinction between this and the removal of an electron from the whole molecule is important in large systems because it usually results in much more stable ions with complete electron shells. For example NH3
·+ is not stable because of an incomplete valence shell around nitrogen and is in fact a radical (chemistry) ion.
Ionization potential
The
energy shabalabadingdong required to detach an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the
ionization potential, or
ionization energy. The
nth ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to detach its
nth electron after the first
n − 1 electrons have already been detached.
Each successive ionization energy is markedly greater than the last. Particularly great increases occur after any given block of atomic orbitals is exhausted of electrons. For this reason, ions tend to form in ways that leave them with full orbital blocks. For example, sodium has one
valence electron, in its outermost shell, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one lost electron, as Na+. On the other side of the periodic table, chlorine has seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as Cl−. Francium has the lowest ionization energy of all the elements and fluorine has the greatest. The ionization energy of metals is generally much lower than the ionization energy of
nonmetals, which is why metals will generally lose electrons to form positively-charged ions while nonmetals will generally gain electrons to form negatively-charged ions.
A neutral atom contains an equal number of Z protons in the nucleus and Z electrons in the electron shell. The electrons' negative charges thus exactly cancel the protons' positive charges. In the simple view of the Free electron model, a passing electron is therefore not attracted to a neutral atom and cannot bind to it. In reality, however, the atomic electrons form a cloud into which the additional electron penetrates, thus being exposed to a net positive charge part of the time. Furthermore, the additional charge displaces the original electrons and all of the Z + 1 electrons rearrange into a new configuration.
Ions
- Anions are negatively charged ions. They are negatively charged because there are more electrons in its orbits than there are protons in the nucleus.
- Cations are ions with positive charges. They are the opposite of anions, since they have fewer electrons than protons.
- Dianion: a dianion is a species which has two negative charges on it; for example, the aromatic dianion pentalene.
- radical (chemistry): radical ions are ions that contain an odd number of electrons and are mostly very reactive and unstable.
Plasma
A collection of non-aqueous solution gas-like ions, or even a gas containing a proportion of charged particles, is called a
plasma, often called the
fourth state of matter because its properties are quite different from solids, liquids, and
gases. Astrophysical plasmas containing predominantly a mixture of electrons and protons, may make up as much as 99.9% of visible matter in the universe. Plasma, Plasma, Everywere Science@NASA Headline news, Space Science n° 158, September 7, 1999.
Applications
Ions are essential to life.
Sodium, potassium,
calcium and other ions play an important role in the
cell (biology)s of living organisms, particularly in
cell membranes. They have many practical, everyday applications in items such as
smoke detectors, and are also finding use in unconventional technologies such as
ion engines. Inorganic dissolved ions are a component of
total dissolved solids, an indicator of water quality in widespread use.
Furthermore, negative ions are used in
ion therapy which utilizes a special electronic device that generates negatively charged particles. The purpose of this application is that there may be some health benefit to a negatively charged environment, opposed to one that is positively charged.
Ions are found in what has quickly become one of the most prevalent sources for long-lasting, hand-held energy:
Lithium-Ion batteries.
Common ions
{||valign="top"|{|class="wikitable"|+Common
Cations|-!style="text-align: left"|Common Name!style="text-align: left"|Formula!style="text-align: left"|Historic Name|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Simple Cations|-|Aluminum||Al3+|||-|Barium||Ba2+|||-|Beryllium||Be2+|||-|Caesium||Cs+|||-|Calcium||Ca2+|||-|Chromium(II)||Cr2+||Chromous|-|Chromium(III)||Cr3+||Chromic|-|Chromium(VI)||Cr6+||Chromyl|-|Cobalt(II)||Co2+||Cobaltous|-|Cobalt(III)||Co3+||Cobaltic|-|Copper(I)||Cu+||Cuprous|-|Copper(II)||Cu2+||Cupric|-|Copper(III)||Cu3+|||-|Gallium ||Ga3+|||-|Helium||He2+||(Alpha particle)|-|Hydrogen||H+||(Proton)|-|Iron(II)||Fe2+||Ferrous|-|Iron(III)||Fe3+||Ferric|-|Lead(II)||Pb2+||Plumbous|-|Lead(IV)||Pb4+||Plumbic|-|Lithium||Li+|||-|Magnesium||Mg2+|||-|Manganese(II)||Mn2+||Manganous|-|Manganese(III)||Mn3+||Manganic|-|Manganese(IV)||Mn4+||Manganyl|-|Manganese(VII)||Mn7+|||-|Mercury(II)||Hg2+||Mercuric|-|Nickel(II)||Ni2+||Nickelous|-|Nickel(III)||Ni3+||Nickelic|-|Potassium||K+|||-|Silver||Ag+|||-|Sodium||Na+|||-|Strontium||Sr2+|||-|Tin(II)||Sn2+||Stannous|-|Tin(IV)||Sn4+||Stannic|-|Zinc||Zn2+|||-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Polyatomic Cations|-|Ammonium||NH4+|||-|Hydronium||H3O+|||-|Nitronium||NO2+|||-|Mercury(I)||Hg22+||Mercurous|}|valign="top"|{|class="wikitable"|+Common
Anions|-!style="text-align: left"|Formal Name!style="text-align: left"|Formula!style="text-align: left"|Alt. Name|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Simple Anions|-|Arsenide||As3−|||-|Azide||N3−|||-|Bromide||Br−|||-|Chloride||Cl−|||-|Fluoride||F−|||-|Hydride||H−|||-|Iodide||I−|||-|Nitride||N3−|||-|Oxide||O2−|||-|Phosphide||P3−|||-|Sulphide||S2−|||-
|Peroxide||O22−|||-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Oxoanions|-|Arsenate||AsO43−|||-|Arsenite||AsO33−|||-|Borate||BO33−|||-|Bromate||BrO3−|||-|Hypobromite||BrO−|||-|Carbonate||CO32−|||-|Hydrogen Carbonate||HCO3−||Bicarbonate|-|Hydroxide||OH−|||-|Chlorate||ClO3−|||-|Perchlorate||ClO4−|||-|Chlorite||ClO2−|||-|Hypochlorite||ClO−|||-|Chromate||CrO42−|||-|Dichromate||Cr2O72−|||-|Iodate||IO3−|||-|Nitrate||NO3−|||-|Nitrite||NO2−|||-|Phosphate||PO43−|||-|Hydrogen Phosphate||HPO42−|||-|Dihydrogen Phosphate||H2PO4−|||-|Permanganate||MnO4−|||-|Phosphite||PO33−|||-|Sulphate||SO42−|||-|Thiosulphate||S2O32−|||-|Hydrogen Sulphate||HSO4−||Bisulphate|-|Sulphite||SO32−|||-|Hydrogen Sulphite||HSO3−||Bisulphite|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Anions from Organic Acids|-|Acetate||C2H3O2−|||-|Formate||HCO2−|||-|Oxalate||C2O42−|||-|Hydrogen Oxalate||HC2O4−||Bioxalate|-!colspan="3" style="background-color: aliceblue"|
Other Anions|-|Hydrogen Sulphide||HS−||Bisulphide|-|Telluride||Te2−|||-|Amide||NH2−|||-|Cyanate||OCN−|||-|Thiocyanate||SCN−|||-|Cyanide||CN−||
|-|}
|}
References
- This can also be known as a 'Valency table'.
External links
- Niels Jonassen (Mr. Static) " Are Ions Good for You?" Compliance Engineering, November 2002
- Graham P. Collins " Ion Power". A web article discussing research applications of ionic states to quantum computing.
- Department of Education, Newfoundland and Labrador-Canada "". A Periodic table reporting ionic charges for every chemical element.
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